H åîÝëéîç ôçò áíôéóýëëçøçò
ÓÝñãéïò I. MáíôáëåíÜêçò
Eí áñ÷Þ çí ôï óåî, ç áíáðáñáãùãÞ
êáé ìåôÜ ï Üíèñùðïò. Káé ï Üíèñùðïò, áðü ôüôå ðïõ õðÜñ÷åé óôç ãç, ðñïóðáèåß
áðåãíùóìÝíá íá äéá÷ùñßóåé ôç óåîïõáëéêÞ éêáíïðïßçóç áðü ôç ãïíéìüôçôá, ÷ùñßò
ðÜíôá íá ôï ðåôõ÷áßíåé. Aíôßèåôá, óôá õðüëïéðá åßäç ôïõ æùéêïý âáóéëåßïõ ïé
äýï áõôÝò Ýííïéåò ôáõôßæïíôáé, óõìâáäßæïõí êáé äåí äéá÷ùñßæïíôáé ðïôÝ. Ãéá ÷éëéÜäåò
÷ñüíéá ôá æåõãÜñéá ðñïóðáèïýí íá åëÝãîïõí ôç ãïíéìüôçôá ÷ñçóéìïðïéþíôáò äéÜöïñåò
ìåèüäïõò êáé ôå÷íéêÝò, áíÜëïãá ìå ôï êïéíùíéêü, ðïëéôéóìéêü êáé ïéêïíïìéêü åðßðåäï
ôïõ êÜèå ëáïý êáé ôçò åêÜóôïôå åðï÷Þò, ìå Üëëïôå Üëëá áðïôåëÝóìáôá, ðåñéóóüôåñï
Þ ëéãüôåñï éêáíïðïéçôéêÜ.
Óå áñ÷áßïõò áéãõðôéáêïýò ðáðýñïõò ðïõ ÷ñïíïëïãïýíôáé ìåôÜ ôï 1850 ð.X., áíáöÝñåôáé
üôé ïé ãõíáßêåò ôçò áíþôåñçò êïéíùíéêÞò ôÜîçò ÷ñçóéìïðïéïýóáí ïõóßåò ìÝóá óôïí
êüëðï, ïé ïðïßåò ìðïñïýóáí íá äåóìåýóïõí Þ íá öïíåýóïõí ôï óðÝñìá. Oé ïõóßåò
áõôÝò ðåñéëÜìâáíáí êüðñï êñïêüäåéëïõ êáé áñãüôåñá åëÝöáíôá, ðïõ öáßíåôáé ðùò
åíåñãïýóáí ùò óðåñìáôïêôüíá. ¶ëëïò áéãõðôéáêüò ðÜðõñïò ôïõ 1550 ð.X. ðåñéãñÜöåé
åíäïêïëðéêÜ ôáìðüí ðïõ åß÷áí äéáðïôéóôåß ìå áöÝøçìá èÜìíïõ áêáêßáò. Tï ìåßãìá
áõôü ðåñéåß÷å ãáëáêôéêü ïîý, ôï ïðïßï áêüìç ÷ñçóéìïðïéåßôáé óôá óðåñìáôïêôüíá
æåë. Eðßóçò, óå áéãõðôéáêÜ áãáëìáôßäéá ðïëëþí ÷éëéÜäùí åôþí åìöáíßæïíôáé Üíäñåò
ðïõ öïñïýí ðåïêáëýðôñåò, ïé ïðïßåò üìùò öáßíåôáé üôé äåí ÷ñçóéìïðïéïýíôï ãéá
áíôéóõëëçðôéêïýò ëüãïõò, áëëÜ ðñïöáíþò, üðùò ðñïêýðôåé áðü ôá áñ÷áßá êåßìåíá,
ðñÝðåé íá õðÞñ÷áí äéáèÝóéìåò êáé ïé áíôßóôïé÷åò ðåïêáëýðôñåò ãéá áíôéóýëëçøç
(åéêüíá 2).
2.
6.
Eéêüíá 2. AéãõðôéáêÞ åéêüíá ôïõ 1350 - 1200 ð.X. ðïõ áðåéêïíßæåé Üíäñá ìå ðåïêáëýðôñá
(ü÷é ãéá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ ÷ñÞóç).
Eéêüíá 6. Iôáëüò áíáôüìïò Gabriele Fallopius (1523-1562).
7.
9.
Eéêüíá 7. Ðñïöõëáêôéêü ôçò öõëÞò ôùí Zïõëïý ðïõ ÷ñçóéìïðïéåßôï åíáíôßïí ôçò
âéëáñôæßáóçò.
Eéêüíá 9. EëáóôéêÜ äéáöñÜãìáôá êáé êáëýðôñåò.
Óôç ÃÝíåóç ôçò EâñáúêÞò Bßâëïõ, óôï êåöÜëáéï 38, áíáöÝñåôáé üôé ï AõíÜí åöÜñìïæå
ôç äéáêïðôüìåíç óõíïõóßá åêóðåñìáôßæïíôáò óôï Ýäáöïò. H ìÝèïäïò áõôÞ åîáêïëïõèåß
íá åßíáé äçìïöéëÞò óå üëï ôïí êüóìï. O ìåãÜëïò AñéóôïôÝëçò ðåñéãñÜöåé ôï "áôüêéïí",
ôçí ðáñáôÞñçóç üôé ãéá ìéá áñêåôÜ ìåãÜëç ðåñßïäï ôïõ êýêëïõ ç ìÞôñá äåí ìðïñåß
íá óõëëÜâåé, ìå áðïôÝëåóìá ïé áñ÷áßïé ¸ëëçíåò íá åöáñìüæïõí áðü ôïõò áñ÷áéüôáôïõò
÷ñüíïõò ôç "ìÝèïäï ôïõ ñõèìïý", äçëáäÞ ôçí áðïöõãÞ ôùí ãüíéìùí çìåñþí,
áðïöåýãïíôáò Ýôóé áíåðéèýìçôåò åãêõìïóýíåò. Eðßóçò, ï ìåãÜëïò öéëüóïöïò êáé
öõóéïäßöçò ðåñéÝãñáøå ôïí ôñüðï ìå ôïí ïðïßï ç ìÞôñá ìðïñåß íá ãßíåé áöéëüîåíç
ãéá ôï óðÝñìá "áëåßöïíôáò ôï ìÝñïò üðïõ ãßíåôáé ç åêóðåñìÜôéóç ìå ëÜäé
êÝäñïõ Þ ìå áëïéöÞ áðü ìüëõâäï Þ ëéâÜíé áíáìåìåéãìÝíï ìå ëÜäé åëéÜò ÷áëêïý,
ðñïöõëÜóóåé áðü áíåðéèýìçôç åãêõìïóýíç ãéá Ýíá ÷ñüíï". BÝâáéá, ôçí åðï÷Þ
åêåßíç ç ìç åðéèõìçôÞ åãêõìïóýíç áíôéìåôùðéæüôáí êáé ìå ôç äéáêïðÞ ôçò, ðñïêáëþíôáò
Ýêôñùóç ôïõ êõÞìáôïò ìå ôç ÷ñÞóç äéÜöïñùí åíäïìÞôñéùí ðåóóþí. O IððïêñÜôçò êáôáäéêÜæåé
ôçí åíÝñãåéá áõôÞ, ðñïöáíþò ôüóï ãéá çèéêïýò üóï êáé éáôñéêïýò ëüãïõò, êáé óôï
ãíùóôü üñêï ôïõ âÜæåé ôïõò íÝïõò éáôñïýò íá ïñêéóôïýí óôïí Aðüëëùíá êáé óôïõò
Üëëïõò Èåïýò üôé äå èá ÷ñçóéìïðïéÞóïõí êÜðïéá ôÝôïéá ìÝèïäï ãéá íá äéáêüøïõí
ìéá åãêõìïóýíç.
ÓáíóêñéôéêÜ êåßìåíá áðü ôçí Iíäßá óõíéóôïýí êïëðéêÝò ðëýóåéò ìå áëáôüíåñï êáé
ðåñéãñÜöïõí ôçí ðáñåìðïäéóìÝíç óõíïõóßá, êáôÜ ôçí ïðïßá ôçí þñá ôçò åêóðåñìÜôéóçò
ðéåæüôáí ç âÜóç ôïõ ðÝïõò, ìå áðïôÝëåóìá ôï óðÝñìá íá ïäçãåßôáé ðßóù óôçí ïõñïäü÷ï
êýóôç. Oé ¶ñáâåò éáôñïß áðü ôïí 9ï-14ï áéþíá óõíéóôïýí ôç ÷ñÞóç ìåßãìáôïò áðü
áëÜôé, ðßóóá, ÷õìü êñåììõäéþí êáé ëÜäé âÜëóáìïõ ðÜíù óôï ðÝïò Þ ôáìðüí áëåéììÝíá
ìå ðïëôü ñïäéïý ãéá ôéò ãõíáßêåò. O ÷õìüò ëåìïíéïý ÷ñçóéìïðïéåßôï åêôåôáìÝíá
áðü ðïëëïýò ðïëéôéóìïýò óôçí áíáôïëéêÞ Eõñþðç Þ áêüìç êáé ìéá óôõììÝíç ëåìïíüêïõðá
ìÝóá óôïí êüëðï, ðïõ åíåñãåß ùò äéÜöñáãìá.
11.
12.
Eéêüíá 11. MåôÜ ôçí áíáêÜëõøç ôïõ Latex ôï 1930, ç ôå÷íïëïãßá ôùí ðñïöõëáêôéêþí
âåëôéþíåôáé.
Eéêüíá 12. Ernst Gra-fenberg (1881-1957), ðñù-ôïðüñïò ôçò åíäïìÞôñéáò áíôéóýëëçøçò.
O ãíùóôüò Iôáëüò áíáôüìïò Fallopius (åéêüíá 6), óôç óýã÷ñïíç åðï÷Þ, öÝñåôáé
üôé áíáêÜëõøå ôï áíäñéêü ðñïöõëáêôéêü, ôï 1504. ¹ôáí öôéáãìÝíï áðü ëéíü ýöáóìá
êáé åß÷å ó÷åäéáóôåß ãéá íá ðñïëáìâÜíåé ôç óýöéëç. AíáôñÝ÷ïíôáò óôçí áñ÷áßá Aßãõðôï,
ôá áíäñéêÜ ðñïöõëáêôéêÜ êáôáóêåõÜæïíôáí áðü Ýíôåñá æþùí. Eðßóçò, áõôü ôï åßäïò
ôïõ ðñïöõëáêôéêïý ÷ñçóéìïðïéåßôï êáé áðü Üëëïõò ëáïýò ôá íåüôåñá ÷ñüíéá. OôéäÞðïôå
åß÷å ôï áíÜëïãï ó÷Þìá äïêéìÜóôçêå ùò áíäñéêü ðñïöõëáêôéêü. Ðáñáäåßãìáôïò ÷Üñéí,
ïé IÜðùíåò ôï 1870 öïñïýóáí ôá "êáìðïõôïãêÜôá", ðïõ óçìáßíåé "óêëçñü
êñÜíïò", öôéáãìÝíá áðü ôáñôáñïýãá, êÝñáôï Þ äÝñìá æþïõ. Nùñßôåñá ôïí ßäéï
áéþíá, ãõíáßêåò ôçò áöñéêáíéêþí öõëþí ÷ñçóéìïðïéïýóáí ôóüöëéá êáñðþí óáí Ýíá
åßäïò ãõíáéêåßïõ ðñïöõëáêôéêïý (åéêüíá 7). Oé Pùìáßåò ôïí ðñþôï áéþíá ì.X. ÷ñçóéìïðïéïýóáí
ôçí ïõñïäü÷ï êýóôç ãßäáò ãéá ôïí ßäéï óêïðü. Eäþ ðñÝðåé íá áíáöÝñïõìå üôé óôçí
áñ÷áßá Pþìç, ïé ãõíáßêåò ôçò áñéóôïêñáôßáò áíáæçôïýóáí ìå ìáíßá Üíäñåò õðïóðáäßåò,
ïé ïðïßïé ëüãù ôçò áíáôïìßáò ôïõ ãåííçôéêïý ôïõò ïñãÜíïõ èåùñïýíôï éäáíéêïß
åñáóôÝò, êáèþò ç åêóðåñìÜôéóç ãéíüôáí Ýîù áðü ôá ãåííçôéêÜ üñãáíá. Tá åëáóôéêÜ
ðñïöõëáêôéêÜ åßíáé äéáèÝóéìá áðü ôï 1880, ðñïóöÝñïíôáò éêáíïðïéçôéêÞ ðñïöýëáîç
áðü ìéá áíåðéèýìçôç åã-êõìïóýíç, áëëÜ êáé áðü ôá óåîïõáëéêþò ìåôáäéäüìåíá íïóÞìáôá.
Óôçí áñ÷Þ ôïõ 20ïõ áéþíá åìöáíßóôçêå ìéá íÝá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ ôå÷íïëïãßá, ç ïðïßá
ðåñéåëÜìâáíå âýóìáôá ðïõ êÜëõðôáí ôïí ôñÜ÷çëï. Eðßóçò, åëáóôéêÜ äéáöñÜãìáôá
êáé êáëýðôñåò ôïõ ôñá÷Þëïõ Üñ÷éóáí íá ãßíïíôáé äçìïöéëÞ ìÝóá áíôéóýëëçøçò ãéá
ôç ãõíáßêá (åéêüíåò 9,10). Tï 1930 ç ôå÷íïëïãßá ôïõ ðñïöõëáêôéêïý âåëôéþèçêå
óçìáíôéêÜ ìå ôçí åéóáãùãÞ ôïõ latex (åéêüíá 11). Tçí åðï÷Þ åêåßíç åìöáíßæïíôáé
óôç Ãåñìáíßá ôá åíäïìÞôñéá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ óðåéñÜìáôá, ìå ãíùóôüôåñïõò ôïõò äáêôõëßïõò
ôïõ Grafenberg.
O Ernst Grafenberg
èåùñåßôáé ùò ï ðáôÝñáò ôçò óýã÷ñïíçò åíäïìÞôñéáò áíôéóýëëçøçò. Aõôüò ó÷åäßáóå
ôïí äáêôýëéï áðü Üñãõñï êáé Ýíôåñï êáé ôïí ÷ñçóéìïðïßçóå áðü ôï 1928 êáé ìåôÜ
óå åõñåßá êëßìáêá. XñïíïëïãéêÜ, âÝâáéá, ðñïçãåßôáé ï Richard Richter, ï ïðïßïò
ôï 1909 ðáñïõóßáóå Ýíáí äáêôýëéï áðü Ýíôåñï ìå äéáðëåêüìåíåò ßíåò, ðïõ äåí âñÞêå
üìùò éêáíïðïéçôéêÞ åöáñìïãÞ êáé ÷ñçóéìïðïéÞèçêå óå ðïëý ëßãåò ðåñéðôþóåéò. O
Grafenberg(1) ãåííÞèçêå óôéò 26 Óåðôåìâñßïõ ôïõ 1881 óôï Addbelsen, êïíôÜ óôï
Gottigen (åéêüíá 12). Óðïýäáóå IáôñéêÞ áñ÷éêÜ óôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï ôïõ MïíÜ÷ïõ êáé
êáôüðéí óôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï ôïõ Gottigen. ¸ãéíå âïçèüò ôïõ êáèçãçôÞ ÷åéñïõñãïý
ãõíáéêïëüãïõ Richard Werth, ãéá íá åéäéêåõôåß óôç MáéåõôéêÞ êáé Ãõíáéêïëïãßá
óôï Kßåëï. Eß÷å Ýíôïíï åðéóôçìïíéêü åíäéáöÝñïí êáé äçìïóßåõóå áîéüëïãåò åðéóôçìïíéêÝò
åñãáóßåò. MåôÜ üìùò áðü ôçí ðáñáßôçóç ôïõ êáèçãçôïý Werth êáé ôç óýíôïìç äéåýèõíóç
ôçò êëéíéêÞò áðü ôïí ãíùóôü Pfannenstiel, ðïõ áðåâßùóå ôï 1909, áðïöÜóéóå íá
åãêáôáëåßøåé ôçí ðáíåðéóôçìéáêÞ êëéíéêÞ êáé íá åãêáôáóôáèåß óôï Båñïëßíï ùò
éäéþôçò éáôñüò. ÐáñÜ ôï ãåãïíüò áõôü, óõíÝ÷éóå ôéò åðéóôçìïíéêÝò ôïõ Ýñåõíåò
óôï pH ôïõ êüëðïõ óôçñéæüìåíïò óå ðñïçãïýìåíåò ìåëÝôåò ôïõ Doderlein. Eðßóçò,
åßíáé ìåôáîý ôùí ðñþôùí åñåõíçôþí ðïõ ðáñáôÞñçóå ôéò ìåôáâïëÝò ôïõ êïëðéêïý
åðéèçëßïõ óå ó÷Ýóç ìå ôïí ãåííçôéêü êýêëï êáé ôçí ùïññçîßá. TåëéêÜ, ôï 1928
äçìïóßåõóå ôç ìåëÝôç ôïõ ãéá ôï åíäïìÞôñéï óðåßñáìá (åéêüíá 14). Tï 1930 óôç
Zõñß÷ç, óôçí 7ç ÄéÜóêåøç ãéá ôïí Ýëåã÷ï ôùí ãåííÞóåùí, áíÝðôõîå ôá áðïôåëÝóìáôá
áðü ôçí åöáñìïãÞ ôçò áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞò ôïõ ìåèüäïõ. Tï 1934, ï IÜðùíáò Ota ðáñïõóßáóå
ôïõò äéêïýò ôïõ äáêôõëßïõò áðü åðé÷ñõóùìÝíï áóÞìé, ðïõ üðùò õðïóôÞñéæå Þôáí
áíþôåñïé åêåßíùí ôïõ Grafenberg.
14.
Eéêüíá 14. Äýï ãíÞóéïé äáêôýëéïé Grafenberg ðïõ åß÷áí áöåèåß óôç ìÞôñá ãéá 24
êáé 40 ÷ñüíéá áíôßóôïé÷á óå äýï ãõíáßêåò.
16.
Eéêüíá 16. Néêüëáïò K. Ëïýñïò. KáèçãçôÞò, Aêáäçìáúêüò, Yðïõñãüò (1898-1986).
ÈåìåëéùôÞò ôçò óýã÷ñïíçò MáéåõôéêÞò & Ãõíáéêïëïãßáò óôçí EëëÜäá.
17.
Eéêüíá 17. H åðéóôïëÞ ôïõ N. Ëïýñïõ (19-10-1964) ó÷åôéêÜ ìå ôá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ
óðåéñÜìáôá.
Tï 1935, ï H. Genesius áíáêïßíùóå óôçí IáôñéêÞ Eôáéñåßá ôïõ Båñïëßíïõ üôé 41
íÝåò ãõíáßêåò ðÝèáíáí áðü óçøáéìßá êáé 445 áóèÝíçóáí óïâáñÜ áðü ôç ÷ñÞóç ôïõ
äáêôõëßïõ ôïõ Grafenberg. O áñ÷éêüò åíèïõóéáóìüò ãéá ôç íÝá áõôÞ áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ
ìÝèïäï ìåôáâÜëëåôáé óå óêåðôéêéóìü êáé êáôáäßêç, ðïõ ôåëéêÜ êñßíåôáé ùò áíáðïôåëåóìáôéêÞ
êáé åðéêßíäõíç. Tï 1936, ç IáðùíéêÞ êõâÝñíçóç áðáãïñåýåé ôç ÷ñÞóç ôïõ äáêôõëßïõ
Ota, åíþ ï Grafengerg õðï÷ñåþíåôáé õðü ôçí ðßåóç ôùí óõíáäÝëöùí ôïõ íá åãêáôáëåßøåé
ôç äéêÞ ôïõ åöåýñåóç. Äýï ÷ñüíéá ìåôÜ ôïí èÜíáôï ôïõ Grafenberg, ôï 1957 óôç
NÝá Yüñêç üðïõ åß÷å ìåôáíáóôåýóåé áðü ôï 1940 äéùãìÝíïò áðü ôïõò Náæß, ç ìÝèïäïò
ôçò åíäïìÞôñéáò áíôéóýëëçøçò åðáíÝñ÷åôáé óôçí åðéêáéñüôçôá áðü ôïõò Oppenheimer
óôï IóñáÞë êáé ôïõò Ischihama êáé Ottata óôçí Iáðùíßá.
Óôç äåêáåôßá ôïõ 1960 ç ôå÷íïëïãéêÞ ðñüïäïò êáé éäéáßôåñá ç åöáñìïãÞ ôùí ðëáóôéêþí
êáé ç áíÜðôõîç ôùí áíôéâéïôéêþí óõíôåëåß áðïöáóéóôéêÜ óôçí åðáíåêôßìçóç ôçò
åíäïìÞôñéáò áíôéóýëëçøçò. Tï 1962 äéïñãáíþíåôáé ç ðñþôç äéåèíÞò äéÜóêåøç ãéá
ôá åíäïìÞôñéá óðåéñÜìáôá. Tï 1964 áêïëïõèåß ç äåýôåñç óôç N. Yüñêç, üðïõ áíáêïéíþíïíôáé
27.000 ôïðïèåôÞóåéò ìå äéÜñêåéá 39.000 åôþí áíÜ ãõíáßêá. O ðñüåäñïò ôïõ óõíåäñßïõ
Christopher Tietze áðü ôá áíáêïéíùèÝíôá áðïôåëÝóìáôá êáôáëÞãåé óôï óõìðÝñáóìá,
üôé ôá åíäïìÞôñéá óðåéñÜìáôá áðïôåëïýí áóöáëÞ êáé áðïôåëåóìáôéêÞ áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ
ìÝèïäï. Tï 1981, ï êáèçãçôÞò - äéåõèõíôÞò ôçò MáéåõôéêÞò êáé ÃõíáéêïëïãéêÞò
êëéíéêÞò ôïõ KéÝëïõ, Kurt Semm, ÷áñÜóóåé áíáìíçóôéêü ìåôÜëëéï ãéá ôá 100 ÷ñüíéá
áðü ôç ãÝííçóç ôïõ Grafengerg.
¹ìïõí êé åãþ åêåß. Tï 1964, ãéá ðñþôç öïñÜ, óôç NÝá Yüñêç ðáñáêïëïýèçóá Ýíá
äéåèíÝò óõíÝäñéï ãéá ôá åíäïìÞôñéá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ êáé ïìïëïãïõìÝíùò åíôõðùóéÜóôçêá.
AéóèÜíèçêá ôçí õðï÷ñÝùóç íá ãñÜøù Ýíá ãñÜììá óôïí êáèçãçôÞ ìïõ, N. Ëïýñï, êáé
íá ôïõ áíáöÝñù åêôåíþò ôéò áíáêïéíþóåéò ðÜíù óå èÝìáôá ðïõ ãéá ðñþôç öïñÜ åß÷á
áêïýóåé (åéêüíåò 16,17). ÐÞñá ìéá áðÜíôçóç ðïõ ìåôáîý ôùí Üëëùí Ýãñáöå: "Ãéá
åìÜò ôï èÝìá Ý÷åé ìüíï èåùñçôéêÞ óçìáóßá, åðåéäÞ ïðùóäÞðïôå ç áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ
áãùãÞ Ý÷åé áðïññéöèåß áðü ôï áíþôáôï õãåéïíïìéêü óõìâïýëéï, üðïõ ðñï åôþí åß÷å
óõæçôçèåß. Káé ôïýôï åðåéäÞ ï ðëçèõóìüò ìáò êáôÝñ÷åôáé êáé äåí Ý÷ïõìå êáíÝíá
óõìöÝñïí íá ôïí åëáôôþóïõìå, åöüóïí äåí ëáìâÜíåôáé äéåèíÞò ó÷åôéêÞ áðüöáóç.
¸÷ù õðüøç ìïõ ôéò æçìéÝò ðïõ ðñïîåíïýóå ðñï ôåóóáñáêïíôáåôßáò ç åöáñìïãÞ ôïõ
ðåóóïý ôïõ Grafenberg, ðïõ åß÷å êáôáäéêáóèåß áðü üëïõò ôïõò ãõíáéêïëüãïõò êáé
äéá ôïýôï äéáôçñþ ðÜíôá ìåãÜëåò åðéöõëÜîåéò". Óôç äåêáåôßá ôïõ 1970, ç
åíäïìÞôñéá áíôéóýëëçøç âñßóêåôáé óå ðëÞñç åîÝëéîç êáé Ý÷åé áðïêôÞóåé äéåèíÞ
áðïäï÷Þ. Tï 1973, ï N. Ëïýñïò ãñÜöåé: "H ìÝèïäïò ïäçãåßôáé óå êÜðïéï áìößâïëï
óçìåñéíü óõñìü" êáé ôåëåéþíåé: "... ãåíéêüôåñá üìùò ôï èÝìá ôçò áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞò
ðñïóðÜèåéáò èá ðáñáìåßíåé óå åêêñåìüôçôá, ãéáôß ç öýóç åßíáé ðéï äõíáôÞ óôçí
ÜìõíÜ ôçò áðü ôçí áíèñþðéíç ðáíïõñãßá. Èá äïýìå!".
18.
19.
Eéêüíá 18. H åîÝëéîç ôùí
åíäïìÞôñéùí óðåéñáìÜôùí.
Eéêüíá 19. H åðßäñáóç ôçò ðñïãåóôåñüíçò óôçí ùïññçîßá.
MåôÜ ôï 1980, ç ôå÷íïëïãßá ôùí óðåéñáìÜôùí åîåëßóóåôáé êáé Ý÷ïõí êõêëïöïñÞóåé
ðåñéóóüôåñïé áðü 50-60 ôýðïé åöåõñçìÜôùí. Xñçóéìïðïéïýíôáé åõñÝùò óðåéñÜìáôá
ìå ðåñéåëßîåéò ÷áëêïý Þ ìå áðåëåõèÝñùóç ïñìïíþí, þóôå íá âåëôéùèåß áêüìç ðåñéóóüôåñï
ç áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ ôïõò éêáíüôçôá (åéêüíá 18). Ãåãïíüò åßíáé üôé ðáñÜ ôç äéåèíÞ
áðïäï÷Þ ôçò ìåèüäïõ, ï êßíäõíïò ôçò ðõåëéêÞò ëïßìùîçò åîáêïëïõèåß íá åßíáé õðáñêôüò.
Eðéóçìáßíåôáé üôé ÷ñåéÜæåôáé éäéáßôåñç ðñïóï÷Þ ôüóï êáôÜ ôçí åíäïìÞôñéá ôïðïèÝôçóç,
üóï êáé êáôÜ ôç óùóôÞ åðéëïãÞ ôïõ ðåñéóôáôéêïý. Eðßóçò, üôáí ç áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ
éêáíüôçôá ôïõ óðåéñÜìáôïò ðÜøåé íá äñá êáé óõìâåß áíåðéèýìçôç êýçóç, ôüôå ðñÝðåé
áìÝóùò íá áöáéñåßôáé ôï óðåßñáìá.
H óýã÷ñïíç, üìùò, áíôéóýëëçøç óôçñßæåôáé óôç ãíþóç üôé ôï âáóéêü öáéíüìåíï ôçò
áíáðáñáãùãÞò - ç ùïññçîßá - ìðïñåß íá áíáóôáëåß ìå öáñìáêåõôéêÝò ïõóßåò. Ðñþôïò
ï Parkes, ôï 1929, áíáöÝñåôáé óôçí ðéèáíÞ åðßäñáóç ôçò åîùãåíïýò ðñïãåóôåñüíçò
óôïí ãåííçôéêü êýêëï (åéêüíá 19). Tï 1953, ïé Pincus êáé Chang äçìïóßåõóáí ôçí
êëáóéêÞ åñãáóßá: "H åðßäñáóç ôçò ðñïãåóôåñüíçò êáé ôùí óõíáöþí ðñïúüíôùí
óôçí ùïññçîßá ôïõ êïíßêëïõÓ,(2) ç ïðïßá Ýãñáøå éóôïñßá êáé áðïôÝëåóå ôçí áðáñ÷Þ
ôïõ íÝïõ êåöáëáßïõ ôçò ïñìïíéêÞò áíôéóýëëçøçò. Tï 1944, ï Gregory Pincus ìå
ôïí ößëï ôïõ Hudson Hoagland ßäñõóáí ôï Worcester Foundation for Experimental
Biology. Añãüôåñá ðñïóåôÝèç óôçí ïìÜäá êáé ï äéÜóçìïò ÷çìéêüò óôåñïåéäþí, Ralph
Dorfman. Eðßóçò, áðü ôï 1945 óôï åðéôåëåßï ôçò Worcester Foundation áíÞêå êáé
ï M.C. Chang, ï ïðïßïò ðñáãìáôïðïßçóå áîéüëïãåò ìåëÝôåò ãéá ôç öõóéïëïãßá ôçò
áíáðáñáãùãÞò. Eß÷å ðñïãñáììáôßóåé ðáñáìïíÞ åíüò Ýôïõò, áëëÜ ðáñÝìåéíå åêåß ìÝ÷ñé
ôï ôÝëïò ôçò æùÞò ôïõ. Aðü ôï 1950 õðÞñ÷áí äéáèÝóéìá íÝá ðñïãåóôåñéíïåéäÞ, ìåôáîý
ôùí ïðïßùí ç íïñåèõäñüíç êáé ç íïñåèõíïäñÝëç, ðïõ Üñ÷éóáí íá âñßóêïõí êëéíéêÞ
åöáñìïãÞ êáé ôá ïðïßá ðáñïõóßáóáí ðïëý õøçëüôåñç ðñïãåóôáãüíï äñÜóç áðü ôçí
ðñïãåóôåñüíç. Oé ðåéñáìáôéêÝò åñãáóßåò ôïõ Pincus êáé ôïõ Chang óôçí ðåñßïäï
1953-1956 óõíÝâáëáí, þóôå íá áêïëïõèÞóåé ç êëéíéêÞ åöáñìïãÞ ôùí ðáñáðÜíù ðáñáôçñÞóåùí
áðü ôïõò Pincus, Garcia êáé Rock, óå ãõíáßêåò óôï Puerto Rico êáé óôçí AúôÞ.
Tï 1960, ç ïñìïíéêÞ áíôéóýëëçøç Ýãéíå äåêôÞ áðü ôç Äéåýèõíóç Tñïößìùí êáé ÖáñìÜêùí
ôùí H.Ð.A. Tï ãåãïíüò áõôü Üëëáîå ôçí éóôïñßá ôçò áíèñùðüôçôáò, ãéáôß ôï ÷Üðé
ðÝôõ÷å íá îå÷ùñßóåé ïñéóôéêÜ ôï óåî áðü ôç ãïíéìüôçôá êáé íá áðåëåõèåñþóåé ôç
ãõíáßêá. ¸ôóé, ç áíôéóýëëçøç ðåñéÞëèå óôá ÷Ýñéá ôùí ãõíáéêþí êáé áðïôåëåß óÞìåñá
áíáöáßñåôï ðñïíüìéü ôïõò.
O Gregory Pincus ãåííÞèçêå óôï Woodbine ôïõ New Jersey to 1903.(3) Óðïýäáóå
óôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï Cornell ôçò N.Y. êáé óôç óõíÝ÷åéá óôï Harvard. Aðü ôï 1930
Ýùò ôï 1938 áíÞêå óôï äéäáêôéêü ðñïóùðéêü ôçò Béïëïãßáò ôïõ ðáñáðÜíù Ðáíåðéóôçìßïõ
êáé Ýãéíå êáèçãçôÞò ôçò ÐåéñáìáôéêÞò Zùïëïãßáò óôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï Clark (åéêüíá
22). Tï 1944, üðùò ðñïáíáöÝñèçêå, ßäñõóå ôçí Worcester Foundation for Experimental
Biology, óôçí ïðïßá ðáñÝìåéíå óõí-äéåõèõíôÞò ìÝ÷ñé ôïí èÜíáôü ôïõ, ôï 1967.
25.
Eéêüíá 25. Tá ðñïãåóôåñéíïåéäÞ êáé ôá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ ðïõ êõêëïöïñïýóáí óôéò
HÐA ôï 1965.
26.
Eéêüíá 26. Tá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ ðïõ êõêëïöïñïýí óôç ÷þñá ìáò óÞìåñá.
O Chang ãåííÞèçêå óôç ìéêñÞ ðüëç Hao Gao,(4) óôçí åðáñ÷ßá Shanai ôçò Kßíáò.
Óðïýäáóå óôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï Tsing Hua ôïõ Ðåêßíïõ óôç Öõóéïëïãßá Zþùí. Aðü ôï
1933 Ýùò ôï 1938 ðáñÝìåéíå âïçèüò-åñåõíçôÞò. To 1938 ðÞñå õðïôñïößá áðü ôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï
ôïõ Edinburg ãéá ôçí áíáðáñáãùãÞ ôùí æþùí. Óôç óõíÝ÷åéá, áðÝêôçóå äéäáêôïñéêü
äßðëùìá áðü ôï ÐáíåðéóôÞìéï ôïõ Cambridge, êáé áêïëïýèçóå ç åðéóôçìïíéêÞ ôïõ
áðïãåßùóç, ãéá íá ïëïêëçñùèåß óôç Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology
ìÝ÷ñé ôïí èÜíáôü ôïõ, ôï 1991.
Tï 1964 åß÷á ôçí êáëÞ ôý÷ç êáé åõôõ÷ßá íá Ý÷ù êáèçãçôÝò ìïõ ôïí Pincus êáé ôïí
Chang, üôáí Þìïõí Fellow óôç Öõóéïëïãßá ôçò AíáðáñáãùãÞò óôï Worcester Foundation
for Experimental Biology. Må ôïí Chang áíáðôýîáìå óôåíüôåñï äåóìü, êáèþò ç óõìâïõëÞ
ðïõ ìïõ Ýäùóå ôüóï ï Pincus üóï êáé ï Charles Lloyd, ï äéåõèõíôÞò óðïõäþí, Þôáí
íá áó÷ïëçèþ ìå ôçí ðåéñáìáôéêÞ öõóéïëïãßá êáé éäéáßôåñá ôçí åìöýôåõóç ôïõ ãïíéìïðïéçìÝíïõ
ùáñßïõ, èÝìáôá ìå ôá ïðïßá áó÷ïëåßôï åéäéêüôåñá ï Chang. ¸ôóé, ìïõ äüèçêå ç
åõêáéñßá íá ðáñáêïëïõèÞóù áðü êïíôÜ üëåò áõôÝò ôéò åîåëßîåéò êáé íá æÞóù ôçí
áôìüóöáéñá ôçò åðï÷Þò (åéêüíåò 23,24). Tï 1965 êõêëïöïñïýóáí óôéò HÐA ðñïãåóôåñéíïåéäÞ
êáé áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ ÷Üðéá (åéêüíá 25).
Tï 1967 äéáðéóôþèçêáí ïé ðñþôåò ðáñåíÝñãåéåò ôïõ ÷áðéïý ìå ôç ìïñöÞ ôùí èñïìâïåìâïëéêþí
åðåéóïäßùí, ìåôÜ ôç ìåëÝôç ôïõ Báóéëéêïý Kïëåãßïõ ôùí Iáôñþí êáé Üëëåò åðéäçìéïëïãéêÝò
ìåëÝôåò. Tüôå îåêßíçóå ç ðñïóðÜèåéá ãéá ôïí ðåñéïñéóìü ôùí ðáñåíåñãåéþí ìå ôç
äñáóôéêÞ ðåñéêïðÞ ôïõ ðåñéå÷üìåíïõ ïéóôñïãüíïõ, üðùò êáé ç ðñïóðÜèåéá áíáêÜëõøçò
íåüôåñùí ðñïãåóôåñéíïåéäþí ïõóéþí, üðùò ç ãåóôïäÝíç, ç íïñãåóôéìÜôç êáé ç äåóïãåóôñÝëç,
ðïõ óõíåôÝëåóáí áðïöáóéóôéêÜ óôç óçìáíôéêÞ âåëôßùóç ôùí áíôéóõëëçðôéêþí äéóêßùí
êáé óôçí ðëÞñç ó÷åäüí åîáöÜíéóç ôùí áíåðéèýìçôùí åíåñãåéþí.
¸ôóé, ôá íÝá áíôéóõëëçðôéêÜ ÷Üðéá ðáñïõóéÜæïõí ðïëëÞ ìåãáëýôåñç áóöÜëåéá êáé
÷ñçóéìïðïéïýíôáé áðü åêáôïììýñéá ãõíáéêþí óå üëï ôïí êüóìï. Eêôüò áðü ôçí áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ
ôïõò äñÜóç Ý÷ïõí åöáñìïãÞ óôç öáñìáêåõôéêÞ ñýèìéóç ôïõ ãåííçôéêïý êýêëïõ êáé
óôç èåñáðåõôéêÞ áíôéìåôþðéóç ôùí ëåéôïõñãéêþí êýóôåùí ôçò ùïèÞêçò. Eðßóçò, ïé
ãõíáßêåò ðïõ ëáìâÜíïõí ôï ÷Üðé ãéá ðïëëÜ ÷ñüíéá äåí öáßíåôáé íá äéáôñÝ÷ïõí êáíÝíáí
éäéáßôåñï êßíäõíï, ãéáôß, ìåôÜ ôç ìåßùóç ôïõ ðåñéå÷ïìÝíïõ ïéóôñïãüíïõ, ï êßíäõíïò
êáñêßíïõ ôïõ ìáóôïý Ý÷åé ðåñéïñéóèåß óçìáíôéêÜ, åíþ ìåôÜ ôç ìáêñï÷ñüíéá ëÞøç
÷áðéïý ç óõ÷íüôçôá ôïõ êáñêßíïõ ôïõ åíäïìçôñßïõ êáé ôùí ùïèçêþí Ý÷ïõí ìåéùèåß
åíôõðùóéáêÜ. Óôá èåôéêÜ åðéôåýãìáôá ôçò ïñìïíéêÞò áíôéóýëëçøçò ðåñéëáìâÜíåôáé
ç åîáöÜíéóç ôçò äõóìçíüññïéáò, ôçò åîùìçôñßïõ êýçóçò êáé ï Ýëåã÷ïò ôùí ìçíïññáãéþí
(åéêüíá 26).
Tï 1995, ðåñßðïõ 30 ÷ñüíéá ìåôÜ ôç èçôåßá ìïõ óôï Worcester Foundation, ìïõ
äüèçêå ç åõêáéñßá íá ðñáãìáôïðïéÞóù ìéá åðßóêåøç ìíÞìçò. Tï üíïìá Ý÷åé ôñïðïðïéçèåß
óå Worcester Foundation for Biomedical Research (åéêüíá 27), áëëÜ ï Pincus êáé
ï Chang ðáñáìÝíïõí æùíôáíïß óôç ìíÞìç ôùí ðáëáéüôåñùí êáé ôùí íåïôÝñùí åñåõíçôþí.
MåãÜëåò öùôïãñáößåò äéáêïóìïýí ôçí åßóïäï (åéêüíá 28). Óôï ðñïáýëéï Ý÷åé ôïðïèåôçèåß
áíáèçìáôéêÞ ðëÜêá ãéá ôïí M.C. Chang, óôçí ïðïßá áíáãñÜöåôáé ôï ãíùóôü ñçôü
ôïõ IððïêñÜôç: ÒBßïò âñá÷ýò, ôÝ÷íç ìáêñÜ, åõêáéñßá ðñïóùñéíÞ, ðåßñá áíáîéüðéóôç
êáé êñßóç óöáëåñÞÓ (åéêüíá 29). Eêåß óõíÜíôçóá ìåñéêïýò åðéóôÞìïíåò ôçò ðáëéÜò
öñïõñÜò ðïõ Üíôå÷áí áêüìç óôï ÷ñüíï. Tþñá åßíáé Ýíá óýã÷ñïíï åñåõíçôéêü êÝíôñï,
ðïõ Ý÷åé ðÜøåé íá åßíáé óõíþíõìï ìå ôïí Pincuò, ôïí Chang êáé ôç Öõóéïëïãßá
ôçò AíáðáñáãùãÞò (åéêüíåò 30,31).
H áíôéóýëëçøç, óõíõöáóìÝíç ìå ôïí Üíèñùðï, ãéá äåêÜäåò áéþíåò åöáñìüóôçêå óå
åìðåéñéêü åðßðåäï, êáé ìüíï ôï áíôéóõëëçðôéêü ÷Üðé áðïôÝëåóå ôçí ðñáãìáôéêÞ
êáéíïôïìßá, êáôáíéêþíôáò ìå åðéóôçìïíéêü ôñüðï ôï öáéíüìåíï ôçò ùïññçîßáò, ðïõ
áðïôåëåß ôç âÜóç ôçò áíáðáñáãùãÞò. BÝâáéá, ìå ôçí åìöÜíéóç ôïõ AIDS ç ðáãêüóìéá
åîÜðëùóç ôïõ ÷áðéïý Ý÷åé åðéâñáäõíèåß, êáèþò åßíáé êáôÜëëçëï ìüíï ãéá ðéóôïýò
êáé áöïóéùìÝíïõò óõæýãïõò êáé åñáóôÝò. ¸ôóé, ç ìç÷áíéêÞ áíôéóýëëçøç äéáôçñåß
áíáãêáóôéêÜ ôïí ñüëï ôçò óôçí ðñüëçøç ôùí ëïéìþîåùí, ðáñüëï ðïõ óôåñåß ôçí Üìåóç
óáñêéêÞ åðáöÞ. Tï áíôéóõëëçðôéêü ÷Üðé åîáêïëïõèåß íá áðïôåëåß ìïíáäéêü åðéóôçìïíéêü
åðßôåõãìá êáé óõíÜìá áíåêôßìçôç ðñïóöïñÜ óôç ãõíáßêá, êáé óõíåðéêïõñïýìåíï áðü
ôçí åíäïìÞôñéá áíôéóýëëçøç äçìéïõñãåß áóöáëÞ áóðßäá ãéá ôçí áðïöõãÞ ôçò áíåðéèýìçôçò
åãêõìïóýíçò.
22.
31.
Eéêüíá 22. Gregory Goodwin
Pincus (1903-1967). ÐáôÝñáò ôçò ïñìïíéêÞò áíôéóýëëçøçò.
Eéêüíá 31. O Ó. MáíôáëåíÜêçò ìå ôç "ðáëáéÜ öñïõñÜ" E. Caspi, êáé J.
McKann (ÓåðôÝìâñéïò 1995).
32.
Eéêüíá 32. H åöáñìïãÞ ôùí
áíôéóõëëçðôéêþí ìåèüäùí äéåèíþò.
ÓÞìåñá õðïëïãßæåôáé üôé
ðåñéóóüôåñåò áðü 70.000.000 ãõíáßêåò óå üëï ôïí êüóìï, áëëÜ êõñßùò óôéò H.Ð.A.
êáé ôçí Eõñþðç, ÷ñçóéìïðïéïýí ôï ÷Üðé ùò áíôéóõëëçðôéêü ìÝóï. ¶ëëåò 100.000.000
ôá åíäïìÞôñéá óðåéñÜìáôá, åê ôùí ïðïßùí ôá 74.000.000 óôçí Kßíá. Eêåßíï ðïõ
åíôõðùóéÜæåé åßíáé ï áñéèìüò ôùí ãõíáéêþí êáé ôùí áíäñþí ðïõ Ý÷ïõí ïäçãçèåß
óôç ìüíéìç óôåéñïðïßçóç, ðïõ áíôßóôïé÷á õðïëïãßæïíôáé óå 140.000.000 êáé 40.000.000,
ìå áðïëßíùóç êáé äéáôïìÞ ôùí óáëðßããùí Þ ôïõ óðåñìáôéêïý ðüñïõ (åéêüíá 32).
Aõôü óõìâáßíåé óôéò AóéáôéêÝò êáé ôéò AöñéêáíéêÝò ÷þñåò, óôç ËáôéíéêÞ AìåñéêÞ,
áëëÜ êáé óôéò H.Ð.A., åíþ Ýíá Üëëï õøçëü ðïóïóôü åöáñìüæåé ôéò ðáñáäïóéáêÝò
áíôéóõëëçðôéêÝò ìåèüäïõò. Ðáñüëá áõôÜ, ç Ýêôñùóç ðïõ åîáêïëïõèåß íá ãßíåôáé
êÜôù áðü áðáñÜäåêôåò éáôñéêÝò êáé õãåéïíïìéêÝò óõíèÞêåò êïóôßæåé ôç æùÞ ÷éëéÜäùí
ãõíáéêþí, êáôÜ êáíüíá óôéò áíáðôõóóüìåíåò ÷þñåò, áëëÜ äõóôõ÷þò ôï ãåãïíüò áõôü
óõìâáßíåé êáé óôéò áíáðôõãìÝíåò ÷þñåò, óôéò ïðïßåò óå Ýíá õøçëü ðïóïóôü ïöåßëåôáé
óôç ÷ïñçãïýìåíç íÜñêùóç. Eêåßíï ðïõ åðéâÜëëåôáé åßíáé ç óùóôÞ åíçìÝñùóç êáé
ç áðüêôçóç ãíþóåùí ãéá ôéò ìåèüäïõò êáé ôéò ôå÷íéêÝò ôçò áíáðáñáãùãéêÞò ðñïöýëáîçò,
éäéáßôåñá ôùí íÝùí, ïé ïðïßïé óôéò óýã÷ñïíåò êïéíùíßåò áðïêôïýí ðïëý íùñßò óåîïõáëéêÞ
åìðåéñßá, ÷ùñßò íá ãíùñßæïõí ôç óùóôÞ åöáñìïãÞ ôùí áíôéóõëëçðôéêþí ìåèüäùí.
H ðñïóðÜèåéá ôïõ áíèñþðïõ, áðü ôüôå ðïõ õðÜñ÷åé óôïí ðëáíÞôç ãç, åßíáé íá åëÝãîåé
ôç ãïíéìüôçôÜ ôïõ ìå äéÜöïñïõò ôñüðïõò, ìå ìüíéìï èýìá ôç ãõíáßêá, ç ïðïßá Ýöåñå
ðÜíôá ôï öïñôßï ôçò áíåðéèýìçôçò åãêõìïóýíçò. Oé ðáíÜñ÷áéïé ôñüðïé ðñïöýëáîçò
åöáñìüóôçêáí ìå ðáñáðëÞóéï ôñüðï áðü ôïõò äéáöüñïõò ëáïýò êáé êïéíùíßåò ÷ùñßò
åíôõðùóéáêÝò ìåôáâïëÝò åðß áéþíåò. Tï áñ÷áßï åëëçíéêü ðíåýìá äéåñåýíçóå ôïí
êýêëï ôçò ãïíéìüôçôáò êáé ï ìåãÜëïò AñéóôïôÝëçò åíôüðéóå "ôï áôüêéïí",
äçëáäÞ üôé äåí åßíáé ãüíéìåò üëåò ïé çìÝñåò ôïõ ãåííçôéêïý êýêëïõ ôçò ãõíáßêáò.
Méá åðéóôçìïíéêÞ ãíþóç ðïõ Ýãéíå êôÞìá åê íÝïõ ôçò åðéóôÞìçò ìüëéò óôç äåêáåôßá
ôïõ 1930.
H çèéêÞ ôïõ IððïêñÜôç óôï èÝìá ôçò Ýêôñùóçò ðáñáìÝíåé äéá÷ñïíéêÞ, áëëÜ ðÝñáí
ôçò çèéêÞò õðÜñ÷åé êáé ç ðñïóôáóßá ôçò õãåßáò êáé ôçò æùÞò ôçò ãõíáßêáò, ðïõ
ôçí åðï÷Þ åêåßíç Ýìðáéíå óå óïâáñüôáôï êßíäõíï. H Ýêôñùóç äåí Þôáí êáé äåí åßíáé
áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ ìÝèïäïò. ÐÝñá áðü êÜèå äßëçììá, èåïëïãéêü Þ êïéíùíéêü, ç Ýêôñùóç
ðåñéêëåßåé óïâáñïýò Üìåóïõò êéíäýíïõò ãéá ôçí õãåßá, áëëÜ êáé áñãüôåñá ìðïñåß
íá äçìéïõñãÞóåé ðñïâëÞìáôá óôçí áíáðáñáãùãÞ, ìå ôç ìïñöÞ ôçò äåõôåñïðáèïýò õðïãïíéìüôçôáò.
H áíáðáñáãùãéêÞ ðñïöýëáîç êáé ï ðñïãñáììáôéóìüò ôçò ïéêïãÝíåéáò åßíáé áíáöáßñåôï
äéêáßùìá êÜèå ãõíáßêáò êáé êÜèå Üíäñá. OðïéáäÞðïôå èñçóêåõôéêÞ Þ Üëëç åîùãåíÞò
ðáñÝìâáóç åßíáé êáôáäéêáóìÝíç íá áðïôý÷åé. H ðíåõìáôéêÞ áíÜðôõîç ôïõ áíèñþðïõ,
ðïõ ôïõ åðÝôñåøå íá äéá÷ùñßóåé ôï óåî áðü ôçí áíáðáñáãùãÞ, äåí ôïõ äßíåé ôï
äéêáßùìá ôçò áíåõèõíüôçôáò áðÝíáíôé óôïí åáõôü ôïõ êáé óôïí óýíôñïöü ôïõ. O
Üíèñùðïò åßíáé õðï÷ñåùìÝíïò, ùò Ýëëïãï êáé êïéíùíéêü ïí, íá åðéëÝîåé ìéá óýã÷ñïíç
êáé áðïôåëåóìáôéêÞ áíôéóõëëçðôéêÞ ìÝèïäï óôç óåîïõáëéêÞ ôïõ ó÷Ýóç, ãéá íá áðïëáýóåé
îÝãíïéáóôïò êáé åõôõ÷éóìÝíïò ôï ìåãÜëï äþñï ôçò æùÞò, ôïí Ýñùôá.
Summary
Mantalenakis SJ.
The evolution of contraception.
Hellen Obstet Gynecol 14(3):181-190, 2002
Correspondence: Serge J. Mantalenakis
23 Meg. Alexandrou Ave
54640, Thessaloniki, Greece
Tel/fax: +30310/814127
E-mail: sergmant@otenet.gr
In the beginning was sex, and then man was born, trying to separate sex from
reproduction. For thousands years couples in several cultures and civilizations
used several techniques and methods to control their fertility and avoid undesirable
pregnancy.
Ancient Egyptian text in papyrus dating back to1850 BC said upper class women
put various substances in their vaginas to block sperm. These included crocodile
dung peccaries, different gums and a mixture of honey and sodium carbonate.
Another Egyptian text from 1550 BC mentioned lint tampons soaked in the fermented
tips of acacia shrubs. The mixture would have contained lactic acid, still used
in spermicidal jellies. In the chapter Genesis of the Bible, Aunan was reported
to practice coitus interruptus or withdrawal, that is ejaculation out of female
genitals, a method still in wide use all over the world.
The Ancient Greeks practiced family planning using the safe period calling it
"atokion". Aristotle described how to make the uterus inhospitable
to sperm and the Hippocratic texts advised drinking copper sulfate to avoid
pregnancy. Sanskrit texts from India recommended salt-water douches and also
described the coitus obstructus which involved squeezing the base of penis at
the time of ejaculation to redirect semen into the bladder. Islamic physicians
of 9th-14th centuries advised to use of rock salt and oil balsam on the penis
and tampons for women mixed with pomegranate pulp. Lemon juice was widely used
in many cultures, and women of the Eastern Europe use half a squeezed lemon
as a diaphragm, the citric acid acts as a spermicide.
Condoms date back to Egyptian times made out of animal intestine. In ancient
Rome women used the bladder of a goat as a female condom. The Italian anatomist
Fallopius invent the modern time the male condom in 1504. It was made of linen
designed to prevent syphilis. Rubber condoms were available in 1880 providing
protection against pregnancy and disease. Rubber diaphragms and caps were also
coming into popularity. In 1930 the use of latex improved dramatically the quality
of condoms and diaphragms.
The German gynecologist Ernst Grafemberg developed an intrauterine device in
1928. It was a ring prepared of silver wire and gut and was widely use. In 1934
Ota of Japan introduced a similar IUD. Although enthusiasm greeted both devices
initially, it was soon replaced by skepticism and even condemnation and under
the public pressure both were abandoned. The recognition of the itrauterine
contraception came later in the early 1960`s, however, Grafenberg passed away
in 1957 and never learn about the success of his invention.
The second International Conference for IUD`s was held in New York in 1964 and
I was present and really impressed. Then I wrote a letter to my professor N.
Louros. He replying stressed the danger of a pelvic inflammatory disease after
the IUD insertion. The real new contribution in human contraception was the
observation that progesterone and especially progestins the synthetic progesterone
like acting hormones developed in 1950`s could block the ovulation. Gregory
Pincus (1903-1967) and M.C. Chang (1908-1991) were the first in a classic publication
in 1953 reported "the effects of progesterone and related compounds on
ovulation and early development in the rabbit". Then Celco Garcia and John
Rock confirmed the results on experimental animals in human. The first contraceptive
pill in 1960 was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. In 1967 the
side effects on contraceptive pills were reveled. The quantity of the included
estrogen was reduced drastically and new progestins were developed.
The new generation of the contraceptive pills considers to be safe and efficacious.
Besides contraception pill offers several other therapeutic parameters, such
as regulation of the cycle, protection from anemia, minimization of ectopic
pregnancy etc. Hormonal and intrauterine contraception are the most effective
methods for fertility control, condom is another popular method protecting also
from AIDS. The permanent sterilization has a great preference in different countries,
however, the traditional methods are still wide practicing.
BIBËIOÃPAÖIA
1. MáíôáëåíÜêçò ÓI. Ernst Grafengerg. EëëçíéêÞ MáéåõôéêÞ & Ãõíáéêïëïãßá
1991; 4:1-5.
2. Pincus G, Chang MC. The effect of progesterone and related compounds in ovulation
and early development on the rabbit. Acta Physioilogica Latinoamericana 1954;
3:177-83.
3. MáíôáëåíÜêçò ÓI. Gregory Goodwin Pincus. EëëçíéêÞ MáéåõôéêÞ & Ãõíáéêïëïãßá
1998; 10:113-7.
4. MáíôáëåíÜêçò ÓI. Min Chueh Chang. EëëçíéêÞ MáéåõôéêÞ & Ãõíáéêïëïãßá 1996;
8:115-8.
Aëëçëïãñáößá:
Ó.I. MáíôáëåíÜêçò
Ë. MåãÜëïõ AëåîÜíäñïõ 23
54640 Èåóóáëïíßêç
Tel/fax: +30310/814127
E-mail: sergmant@otenet.gr